Nutrition References

Version 1.0 · Effective May 23, 2026

Références scientifiques

Apport glucidique avant l’effort :

Louise M. Burke, John A. Hawley, Stephen H. S. Wong & Asker E. Jeukendrup (2011) Carbohydrates for training and competition, Journal of Sports Sciences, 29:sup1, S17-S27

Podlogar, T., Cirnski, S., Bokal, Š., Verdel, N., & Gonzalez, J. T. (2022). Addition of Fructose to a Carbohydrate-Rich Breakfast Improves Cycling Endurance Capacity in Trained Cyclists, International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism (published online ahead of print 2022).

Breakfast consumption does not rapidly increase liver or muscle glycogen content in well-trained cyclists; Cas J. Fuchs, Pandichelvam Veeraiah, Wesley J.H. Hermans, Bente Brauwers, Rick Voncken, Jorg van Beek, Kim Brouwers, Job van den Hurk, Peter E. Thelwall, Jeanine J Prompers, and Luc J.C. van Loon; 2025

Brouns F, Rehrer NJ, Saris WH, et al. Effect of carbohydrate intake during warming-up on the regulation of blood glucose during exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 1989 

Michael Kingsley,Carlos Penas-Ruiz,Chris Terry,Mark Russell. Effects of carbohydrate-hydration strategies on glucose metabolism, sprint performance and hydration during a soccer match simulation in recreational players. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2014

Gollnick PD, Piehl K, Saltin B. Selective glycogen depletion pattern in human muscle fibres after exercise of varying intensity and at varying pedalling rates. J Physiol. 1974


Apport glucidique pendant l’effort :

Hargreaves, M., Spriet, L.L. Skeletal muscle energy metabolism during exercise. Nat Metab 2, 817–828 (2020).

Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, Ivy JL. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol (1985).

Smith JW, Pascoe DD, Passe DH, Ruby BC, Stewart LK, Baker LB, Zachwieja JJ. Curvilinear dose-response relationship of carbohydrate (0-120 g·h(-1)) and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013

Glucose uptake is increased in trained vs. untrained muscle during heavy exercise, Søren Kristiansen, Jon Gade, Jørgen F. P. Wojtaszewski, Bente Kiens, and Erik A. Richter, Journal of Applied Physiology 2000

Ijaz, A., Collins, A. J., Moreno-Cabañas, A., Bradshaw, L., Hutchins, K., Betts, J. A., Podlogar, T., Wallis, G. A., & Gonzalez, J. T. (2024). Exogenous Glucose Oxidation During Exercise Is Positively Related to Body Size. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism

Podlogar, T., Cooper-Smith, N., Gonzalez, J.T. et al. Personalised carbohydrate feeding during exercise based on exogenous glucose oxidation: a proof-of-concept study. Perform. Nutr. 1, 2 (2025).

Podlogar, T., Wallis, G.A. New Horizons in Carbohydrate Research and Application for Endurance Athletes. Sports Med (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-022-01757-1

Jones, R.O., Vaz DE Oliveria, M., Palmer, B., Maguire, D., Butler, G., Gothard, I., Kavanagh, K., Areta, J., Pugh, J. and Louis, J. (2025), Different Carbohydrate Ingestion Patterns Do Not Affect Physiological Responses, Whole-Body Substrate Oxidation or Gastrointestinal Comfort in Cycling. Eur J Sport Sci

Podlogar, T., Grmek, B., Pungerčar, L., Cirnski, S., Goršek Šparovec, T., & Rowlands, D. S. (2025). No Performance Effects of Altered Carbohydrate Distribution During Intense Cycling. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism (published online ahead of print 2025). Retrieved Feb 3, 2026

Menzies, C., Wood, M., Thomas, J., Hengist, A., Walhin, J., Jones, R., Tsintzas, K., Gonzalez, J. T., & Betts, J. A. (2020). Frequent Carbohydrate Ingestion Reduces Muscle Glycogen Depletion and Postpones Fatigue Relative to a Single Bolus. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism

Mears SA, Boxer B, Sheldon D, Wardley H, Tarnowski CA, James LJ, Hulston CJ. Sports Drink Intake Pattern Affects Exogenous Carbohydrate Oxidation during Running. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2020

Rowlands, D.S., Houltham, S., Musa-Veloso, K. et al. Fructose–Glucose Composite Carbohydrates and Endurance Performance: Critical Review and Future Perspectives. Sports Med 45, 1561–1576 (2015). 

Tiller NB, Roberts JD, Beasley L, Chapman S, Pinto JM, Smith L, Wiffin M, Russell M, Sparks SA, Duckworth L, O'Hara J, Sutton L, Antonio J, Willoughby DS, Tarpey MD, Smith-Ryan AE, Ormsbee MJ, Astorino TA, Kreider RB, McGinnis GR, Stout JR, Smith JW, Arent SM, Campbell BI, Bannock L. International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: nutritional considerations for single-stage ultra-marathon training and racing. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019

Rowlands DS, Kopetschny BH, Badenhorst CE. The Hydrating Effects of Hypertonic, Isotonic and Hypotonic Sports Drinks and Waters on Central Hydration During Continuous Exercise: A Systematic Meta-Analysis and Perspective. Sports Med. 2022


Apport glucidique après l’effort :

Naderi, A., Rothschild, J.A., Santos, H.O. et al. Nutritional Strategies to Improve Post-exercise Recovery and Subsequent Exercise Performance: A Narrative Review. Sports Med 55, 1559–1577 (2025)

Podlogar, T., Wallis, G.A. New Horizons in Carbohydrate Research and Application for Endurance Athletes. Sports Med (2022).

Ivy JL, Katz AL, Cutler CL, Sherman WM, Coyle EF. Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion. J Appl Physiol (1985). 

Gonzalez JT, Betts JA. Dietary sugars, exercise and hepatic carbohydrate metabolism. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 2019

Fuchs CJ, Veeraiah P, Hermans WJH, Brauwers B, Voncken R, Brouwers K, Petrick HL, Hendriks FK, Bels JLM, van den Hurk J, Weber J, Senden JM, Smith FE, Thelwall PE, Prompers JJ, van Loon LJC. Carbohydrate intake of 10 g/kg body mass rapidly replenishes liver, but not muscle glycogen contents, during 12 h of post-exercise recovery in well-trained cyclists. J Physiol. 2025

Burke LM, van Loon LJC, Hawley JA. Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2017;122:1055–67. 

Wallis GA, Hulston CJ, Mann CH, Roper HP, Tipton KD, Jeukendrup AE. Postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis with combined glucose and fructose ingestion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:1789–94.

Fuchs CJ, Gonzalez JT, Beelen M, Cermak NM, Smith FE, Thelwall PE, et al. Sucrose ingestion after exhaustive exercise accelerates liver, but not muscle glycogen repletion compared with glucose ingestion in trained athletes. J Appl Physiol. 2016


Apports en protéines pendant l’effort :

No effect of carbohydrate-protein on cycling performance and indices of recovery. Leigh Breen, Kevin D Tipton, Asker E Jeukendrup. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42(6):1140-8, 2010.


Apports en protéines après l’effort :

Naderi, A., Rothschild, J.A., Santos, H.O. et al. Nutritional Strategies to Improve Post-exercise Recovery and Subsequent Exercise Performance: A Narrative Review. Sports Med 55, 1559–1577 (2025).

Witard OC, Hearris M, Morgan PT. Protein Nutrition for Endurance Athletes: A Metabolic Focus on Promoting Recovery and Training Adaptation. Sports Med. 2025 Jun;55(6):1361-1376. doi: 10.1007/s40279-025-02203-8. Epub 2025

Nunes, E. A., Colenso-Semple, L., McKellar, S. R., Yau, T., Ali, M. U., Fitzpatrick-Lewis, D., Sherifali, D., Gaudichon, C., Tomé, D., Atherton, P. J., Robles, M. C., Naranjo-Modad, S., Braun, M., Landi, F., and Phillips, S. M. (2022) Systematic review and meta-analysis of protein intake to support muscle mass and function in healthy adults


Apports en sodium pré effort :

Siegler, J. C., Carr, A. J., Jardine, W. T., Convit, L., Cross, R., Chapman, D., Burke, L. M., & Ross, M. (2022). The Hyperhydration Potential of Sodium Bicarbonate and Sodium Citrate, International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 32(2), 74-81. Retrieved Mar 29, 2022

Convit, L., Kelly, M. K., Jardine, W. T., Périard, J. D., Carr, A. J., Warmington, S., … Snipe, R. M. J. (2024). Influence of acute heat mitigation strategies on core temperature, heart rate and aerobic performance in females: A systematic literature review. Journal of Sports Sciences

Jardine, W.T., Aisbett, B., Kelly, M.K. et al. The Effect of Pre-Exercise Hyperhydration on Exercise Performance, Physiological Outcomes and Gastrointestinal Symptoms: A Systematic Review. Sports Med (2023).


Apports en sodium pendant l’effort :

MCCUBBIN, A. J. Modelling sodium requirements of athletes across a variety of exercise scenarios – Identifying when to test and target, or season to taste. European Journal of Sport Science, 2024

McCubbin, A.J. Sodium intake for athletes before, during and after exercise: review and recommendations. Perform. Nutr. 1, 11 (2025). 

McCubbin, A. J., & da Costa, R. J. (2023). Effect of Personalized Sodium Replacement on Fluid and Sodium Balance and Thermophysiological Strain During and After Ultraendurance Running in the Heat. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance


Apports en sodium après l’effort :

Ronald J Maughan,Phillip Watson,Philip AA Cordery,Neil P Walsh,Samuel J Oliver,Alberto Dolci,Nidia Rodriguez-Sanchez,Stuart DR Galloway. A randomized trial to assess the potential of different beverages to affect hydration status: development of a beverage hydration index 1. 2016

Maughan RJ, Leiper JB, Shirreffs SM. Factors influencing the restoration of fluid and electrolyte balance after exercise in the heat. Br J Sports Med. 1997

Optimizing the restoration and maintenance of fluid balance after exercise-induced dehydration. Gethin H. Evans, Lewis J. James, Susan M. Shirreffs, and Ronald J. Maughan. Journal of Applied Physiology 2017

Desbrow B, Jansen S, Barrett A, Leveritt MD, Irwin C. Comparing the rehydration potential of different milk-based drinks to a carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2014

Maughan RJ, Owen JH, Shirreffs SM, Leiper JB. Post-exercise rehydration in man: effects of electrolyte addition to ingested fluids. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1994

Wemple RD, Morocco TS, Mack GW. Influence of sodium replacement on fluid ingestion following exercise-induced dehydration. Int J Sport Nutr. 1997


Caféine :

McLellan TM, Caldwell JA, Lieberman HR. A review of caffeine's effects on cognitive, physical and occupational performance. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2016

Graham TE, Spriet LL. Metabolic, catecholamine, and exercise performance responses to various doses of caffeine. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1995 

Martin, K., Meeusen, R., Thompson, K.G. et al. Mental Fatigue Impairs Endurance Performance: A Physiological Explanation. Sports Med 48, 2041–2051 (2018).

Newsholme EA, Blomstrand E. The plasma level of some amino acids and physical and mental fatigue. Experientia. 1996

Guest NS, VanDusseldorp TA, Nelson MT, Grgic J, Schoenfeld BJ, Jenkins NDM, Arent SM, Antonio J, Stout JR, Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE, Goldstein ER, Kalman DS, Campbell BI. International society of sports nutrition position stand: caffeine and exercise performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021

Tiller NB, Roberts JD, Beasley L, Chapman S, Pinto JM, Smith L, Wiffin M, Russell M, Sparks SA, Duckworth L, O'Hara J, Sutton L, Antonio J, Willoughby DS, Tarpey MD, Smith-Ryan AE, Ormsbee MJ, Astorino TA, Kreider RB, McGinnis GR, Stout JR, Smith JW, Arent SM, Campbell BI, Bannock L. International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: nutritional considerations for single-stage ultra-marathon training and racing. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019 


Saveurs et textures :

Best, R., McDonald, K., Hurst, P. et al. Can taste be ergogenic?. Eur J Nutr 60, 45–54 (2021).

Tiemeier L, Nikolaidis PT, Chlíbková D, Wilhelm M, Thuany M, Weiss K, Knechtle B. Ultra-Cycling- Past, Present, Future: A Narrative Review. Sports Med Open. 2024

Keyne Charlot, Chloé Lavoué, Julien Siracusa, Emeric Chalchat, Pierre Hertert & Cyprien Bourrilhon (2022) Fluctuations in food and fluid intake during a 24-h World Championship: analysis of the deviation from nutritional programs, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition

Hearris MA, Pugh JN, Langan-Evans C, Mann SJ, Burke L, Stellingwerff T, Gonzalez JT, Morton JP. 13C-glucose-fructose labeling reveals comparable exogenous CHO oxidation during exercise when consuming 120 g/h in fluid, gel, jelly chew, or coingestion. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2022

Park, C., Pagnini, F. & Langer, E. Glucose metabolism responds to perceived sugar intake more than actual sugar intake. Sci Rep 10, 15633 (2020).